Pugwash is the name of a Canadian fishing village and a commitment to peace. In July 1957, at the height of the Cold War, twenty-two scientists gathered here for the first Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs. The group was led by the mathematician and philosopher Bertrand Russell, who, two years earlier on 9 July 1955, presented the Russell and Einstein Manifesto in London's Caxton Hall. In this manifesto, the philosopher and physicist (who died in April but had signed it) called on the world to renounce war. The conference was presided over by the Polish-born, naturalised British physicist Josef Rotblat, who was the only scientist to abandon the Manhattan Project for reasons of conscience. In 1995, he received the Nobel Peace Prize on behalf of himself and the Pugwash Conferences. Since then, the Pugwash movement has grown to include more and more scientists and has established organisations of scientists for peace around the world. After a long Italian General Secretariat under Paolo Cotta Ramusino (from 2002 to 2024), the movement now has an Argentinian General Secretary: physicist Karen Hallberg. She is a principal researcher at the Argentine Council for Science and Technology (CONICET), working at the Bariloche Atomic Centre, as well as a professor of physics at the Balseiro Institute (part of the Argentine Atomic Energy Commission and the University of Cuyo). The following is a conversation with her about world peace and the role of scientists.

Silvia Bencivelli It is a time of serious global crisis. What can Pugwash do to promote peace in today's war-torn territories, or at least contain the risk of conflict widening? And is it being listened to by governments?
Karen Hallberg You are right by saying we are living through a global crisis. We are facing big political changes and shifts in the world order. There is a growing fragmentation and polarization between regions and countries leading to a multipolar world while weakening multilateralism and international law (particularly international humanitarian law), strengthening authoritarianisms while eroding democratic values and human rights. Conflicts are rising leading to huge increase in military budgets and militarization, including space. 
Societies are still recovering from the consequences of the most disruptive world-wide pandemic and are subject to a high degree of confusion caused by misinformation, disinformation and conspiracy theories. In spite of the hyperconnectivity, we are living inside information bubbles and are losing critical thinking abilities. 
Also, our world is facing enormous challenges like climate change, biodiversity loss, widespread diseases, pollution, poverty, migration, and the threat of the potential misuse of a variety of emerging technologies like AI, among other serious problems.
However, the most salient threat, due to its potential to wipe all life on earth in a blink of an eye, is the increasing risk posed by nuclear weapons. Nuclear-armed countries are investing hundreds of billions in expanding their arsenals. Arms control is collapsing, high-level diplomacy is lacking, and more nations are considering nuclear development, endangering nonproliferation efforts and raising the risk of war. Wars involving nuclear-armed states (Russia and Israel) increase the risk even further. Today, there is a significant probability that either by accident or by design, weapons that can end humanity will be detonated.
One of most iconic indicators of the current global situation, the Doomsday Clock of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, has just set the clock to 89 seconds to midnight, the closest it has ever been to catastrophe, since its inception in 1947. This metaphor invites us to reflect on the looming catastrophic risks and raises awareness on the most pressing issues we are facing today.
Given the current situation described above, the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs have a salient responsibility. They were created in 1957 following the urgent call of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, issued two years earlier which drew attention to the enormous danger posed by the development of thermonuclear weapons capable of destroying humanity. It also urged governments and people to avoid war to resolve conflicts and to seek peaceful ways to do so and called a conference of scientists to discuss these important issues and take action. It was signed by eleven renowned scientists, most of them Nobel Laureates. The Pugwash Conferences was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 together with one of its founders, the physicist Joseph Rotblat “for their efforts towards diminishing the role of nuclear weapons in international affairs and, in the long run, eliminating such weapons”. Rotblat was the only scientist working for the Manhattan Project who resigned based on ethical considerations. 
The Pugwash Conferences aim to eliminate all weapons of mass destruction—nuclear, chemical, and biological—and to end war as a means of resolving international conflicts. Guided by the motto “dialogue across divides,” the organization promotes peaceful conflict resolution and risk reduction through open dialogue, mutual understanding, and science-based policy. 
Along all its years since its foundation, the Pugwash Conferences has built an extensive network all over the world which includes scientists, academics, policy experts, and public figures who actively engage with high-level government officials, international bodies, NGOs, and the scientific community. Pugwash was a trailblazer in what is now known as Science Diplomacy—leveraging scientific knowledge to support diplomatic efforts.
 
SB In this context, what role does Pugwash play, and what are your responsibilities as the Secretary General of the organization?
KH As the Secretary General of Pugwash I intend to focus on harnessing Pugwash’s broad network, deep expertise, and scientific approach to address the pressing challenges of global nuclear threats, regional tensions, emerging technologies, chemical and biological weapons, and climate change—especially where science and society intersect. In times of conflict, when dialogue and diplomatic channels break down, it becomes even more crucial to promote trust-building initiatives between opposing sides.
Concrete proposals include discussions on ways to reduce the risks stemming from the Ukraine war and its consequences for deterrence, doctrine, and arms racing. This is achieved by Track Two dialogues between European, Russian, and American experts. Similar actions include dialogues including Chinese, Iranian, Israeli and participants from other countries, in different contexts. I should emphasize that the Pugwash rationale encourages participants to engage in honest and evidence-based dialogues and not as representatives of their original countries or institutions. 
We also have working groups to assess the scope of threats, vulnerabilities, inequities  and applications for good of emerging technologies.—such as Artificial Intelligence, Quantum Technologies, cyber weapons, genetic technologies and synthetic biology . 
For example, we are exploring the dangers posed by the integration of artificial intelligence into the command-and-control systems of nuclear weapons. In that regard we have organized a webinar with the participation of Geoffrey Hinton (2024 Nobel laureate in physics, AI expert) and four other Peace Nobel Prize organizations (Nihon Hidankyo, ICAN, IPPNW and the Pugwash Conferences) and experts with the title: Autonomous Armageddon (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmz2DoMHBys). 
We also aim at leveraging the scientific aspect of Pugwash, bringing knowledge to decision making, for example, by contributing to the UN mandate to study the effects of nuclear war.
The current global situation requires that we work together with other kindred organisations like International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN), the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW), the recently awarded Nobel Peace Prize organization of survivors of the atomic bombs, Nihon Hidankyo, and the Physicists Coalition for Nuclear Threat Reduction, among others. We are also working together with our national chapters in several countries and with the young branch, the International Young Student Pugwash (ISYP) who are very active and committed. It is of outmost importance to raise awareness among the young generation.
And the highlight this year will be our 63rd Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, “80 Years After the Atomic Bombing: Time for Peace, Dialogue and Nuclear Disarmament”, during the first week of November in Hiroshima.

SB The climate crisis has taken a back seat. Yet it too can be a factor in political and economic instability. Are we taking a serious step backwards or will the ecological transition go ahead anyway? And what is the role of scientists in this?
KH Regretfully, political leaders are relying less on scientific evidence to make decisions. Climate change is one example. It is urgent that governments, policy-makers, the private sector and citizens in general realize the importance of bringing knowledge to decision making.
Given the overall penetration of technology and information in our everyday life, scientific literacy is as important today as literacy was in the past, for citizens and governments. Development is based fundamentally on science and technology, and it is by understanding and relying on science and technology that we can progress and that governments can take wise decisions. Denying climate change is totally irresponsible and citizens should be aware of that when they cast their vote. We are reaching a point of no return after which it will be impossible to curb the catastrophic consequences of global warming.

SB With the onset of the war in Ukraine, the scientific community has raised the question of scientific collaborations with Russia, and under certain circumstances these collaborations have been cut off. What is Pugwash's position on this? What about Israel?
KH Pugwash seeks to foster science diplomacy since its inception. For example, fostering science in diplomacy, where science can provide advice to inform and support foreign policy objectives (e.g. technical aspects in verification, safeguards, dismantlement, effects of nuclear weapons) and science for diplomacy, where scientific cooperation can improve international relations (salient examples in physics are the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East (SESAME), the international Center for Theoretical Physics (ICTP) among others). Science is a universal culture and, as such, it is important that scientific exchange is not severed, particularly in times of conflict. 
However, considering the world fragmentation and polarization, the restrictions to scientific exchange, the proliferation of misinformation and reduction of reliance in science by the public opinion, there are several challenges to science diplomacy. And this is happening while science is most needed, vis a vis global problems, like climate change, biodiversity loss, pandemic risks, and many other existential threats which require concerted, interdisciplinary collective action, new technologies that cross national boundaries which call for global actions and an increasing technology gap between rich and developing nations, which need ways to ensure inclusive, equitable and global development of these technologies to meet the SDGs.

SB The ‘new wars’ are increasingly technological and use more and more advanced systems including artificial intelligence, and the role of scientists in their development is crucial. How can we prevent science from being an instrument of war? What can scientific associations do (apart from launching appeals) to return to the role they played during the cold war, when they pushed governments towards denuclearisation?
KH This is at the core of our work in Pugwash. We need to raise awareness of the role of scientists in societal matters, particularly their involvement in war. As said above, Joseph Rotblat was the only scientist working for the Manhattan Project who resigned based on ethical considerations. In his Nobel acceptance speech in 1995, he appealed to the responsibility of scientists saying: “In these times when science plays such a powerful role in the life of our society, when the fate of all humanity may depend on the results of scientific research, it is incumbent upon all scientists to be fully aware of that role and to conduct themselves accordingly. I appeal to my scientific colleagues to remember their responsibility towards humanity”. 
Our current president of Pugwash, Hussain Al-Shahristani, was imprisoned in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq for nearly eleven years after refusing to collaborate on an Iraqi nuclear weapon. He is an eminent scientist whose courageous stance against nuclear weapons and his scientific approach to policymaking represent the core values of the Pugwash Conferences. 

SB You are the first Pugwash president from a country that was not involved in the world conflicts of the last century. What has happened to the Pugwash in recent years? And who is part of it today?
KH The world has changed significantly since Pugwash was founded in 1957 and this means that, as all other institutions, it has to evolve to adapt to modern times. Er are adapting our governance to modern practices. We have an important and growing network of scientists and policy specialists covering all regions. We are working mainly remotely, however, we prioritize in-person meetings when necessary since this is fundamental for deep discussions and cannot be replaced by on-line meetings. We are also, as said, including young people to our activities because they are committed now and will continue the work in the future. 
I am the first woman Secretary general.